Figure 2

Estrogen inhibits HCC development through its anti-inflammatory effects. Estrogen exerts its protective effects through different pathways in KCs and hepatocytes. Ligand-bound ER-β inhibits M2 phenotype polarization in the ANA-1 cell line, and this procedure occurs mainly in TAMs, and not in KCs. Several miRNAs promote HCC by inhibiting ER-α. FOXA1/2 assists a ligand-bound ER-α to locate and bind to the ERE, and STAT3 plays a central role in these axes. Necrosis caused by liver injury defines the inflammatory microenvironment in the liver and eventually leads to HCC.