Table 1 Effects of gut-derived metabolites on kidney diseases

Indoxyl sulfate

Increase of IL-1β and TNF-α in human monocytes

[37]

Induction of TNF-α in macrophages

[39]

Elicit adhesion and extravasation of leukocytes in mice

[41]

Indole-3-acetic acid

Damage of DNA and ultrastructural in neutrophils

[43, 44]

Resulting in death of neutrophils

p-Cresol sulfate

Increase of the percentage of free radical-producing leucocytes

[47]

Inhibition of the production of IFN-γ in mouse T cells

[49]

Inhibition of IL-12 in macrophages

[50]

Suppression of the proliferation of CD43⁺ B-cell progenitors

[51]

Butyrate

Decrease of urine BUN and Scr levels; attenuation of renal pathology; reduction of macrophage infiltration and kidney inflammation

[60]

Improvement of intestinal barrier and insulin sensitivity

[61]

Acetate

Retard of inflammation by inhibiting histone acetylation (HDAC) activity of T cells

[62]

Propionate

Alleviation of the increased Scr and BUN via the fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) or FFA3 pathway

[63]

Inhibition of inflammation in HD patients

[64]