The effects of probiotics supplementation on glycaemic control among adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials

Table 4 Subgroup analysis for the effects of probiotics on HbA1c

Subgroup	No. of trials	No. of participants	I² (%)	P_{heterogeneity}	Pooled SMD [95% CI]	P_effect	P_subgroup
Race
Asian	9	722	70.2	0.001	− 0.362 [− 0.647, − 0.077]	0.013	0.032
Caucasian	12	639	39.6	0.077	− 0.465 [− 0.672, − 0.257]	< 0.001	0.032
Dose of probiotic
≤ 1 × 10¹⁰ CFU/day	8	368	5.0	0.392	− 0.337 [− 0.573, − 0.102]	< 0.001	0.076
> 1 × 10¹⁰ CFU/day	11	833	62.8	0.003	− 0.484 [− 0.699, − 0.270]	0.005	0.076
Duration of intervention
≤ 8 weeks	11	543	0.0	0.586	− 0.509 [− 0.681, − 0.337]	< 0.001	0.077
> 8 weeks	12	923	72.4	< 0.001	− 0.359 [− 0.619, − 0.098]	0.007	0.077
Genus of probiotics
Lactobacillus	7	292	54.1	0.042	− 0.250 [− 0.599, 0.098]	0.159	0.001
Bifidobacterium	2	160	50.7	0.154	− 0.913 [− 1.387, − 0.438]	< 0.001	0.001
Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium	12	890	51.0	0.021	− 0.407 [− 0.605, − 0.209]	< 0.001
Type of vehicle used to deliver the probiotics
Powder/capsule/tablet	11	808	55.9	0.012	− 0.384 [− 0.606, − 0.162]	0.001	0.047
Food	10	571	61.5	0.005	− 0.524 [− 0.800, − 0.249]	< 0.001	0.047
Baseline BMI
< 30 kg/m²	13	861	51.1	0.017	− 0.338 [− 0.541, − 0.134]	0.001	0.018
≥ 30 kg/m²	8	454	57.6	0.021	− 0.485 [− 0.783, − 0.188]	0.001	0.018

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