Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the included participants in the model applicative set

No. of subjects

7614

2631

–

4921

4175

–

Body mass index (BMI), kg/m²

 Actual BMI

23.5 ± 2.3

22.4 ± 2.2

< 0.001

30.9 ± 2.9

36.6 ± 4.4

< 0.001

 Metabolomic-estimated

23.7 ± 1.0

28.8 ± 2.4

< 0.001

31.2 ± 1.0

28.6 ± 2.5

< 0.001

Waist hip ratio

0.79 ± 0.06

0.85 ± 0.08

< 0.001

0.94 ± 0.07

0.90 ± 0.09

< 0.001

Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg

130.1 ± 18.5

134.9 ± 18.7

< 0.001

143.3 ± 17.5

140.6 ± 17.6

< 0.001

Total cholesterol, mmol/L

5.64 (4.99–6.31)

5.53 (4.72–6.38)

< 0.001

5.50 (4.67–6.41)

5.58 (4.84–6.31)

0.038

High-density lipoprotein, mmol/L

1.8 ± 0.4

1.4 ± 0.3

< 0.001

1.1 ± 0.2

1.4 ± 0.4

< 0.001

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), %

5.2 ± 0.4

5.5 ± 0.7

< 0.001

5.8 ± 1.0

5.6 ± 0.7

0.001

Serum creatinine, mg/dL

0.74 (0.66–0.84)

0.78 (0.67–0.90)

< 0.001

0.85 (0.73–0.96)

0.78 (0.68–0.89)

< 0.001

Presence of hypertension, %

4,054 (53.2%)

1,702 (64.7%)

< 0.001

4,306 (87.5%)

3,537 (84.7%)

< 0.001

Presence of diabetes mellitus, %

74 (1.0%)

152 (5.8%)

< 0.001

817 (16.6%)

472 (11.3%)

< 0.001

Healthy diet score

4.3 ± 1.3

3.6 ± 1.5

< 0.001

3.4 ± 1.4

3.8 ± 1.4

< 0.001