Table 1 Signals involved in the interaction of TAMs with tumor cells

WNT signaling pathway

Wnt signaling-inducible proteins released from tumor cells mediate TAMs recruitment and m2-like polarization

Wnt proteins released from TAMs augment the stemness of tumor cells through a β-catenin-dependent pathway and promote the invasiveness of tumor cells through a β-catenin-independent pathway

Facilitates tumor advancement through β-catenin-dependent and β-catenin-independent pathways; Wnt5a promotes tumor cell invasion through an atypical pathway

PI3K signaling pathway

Various cytokines, including EGFR, activate the PI3K pathway and contribute to the recruitment of TAMs and their polarization to the M2 phenotype, providing a suitable environment for tumor progression

Tumor cells release succinate via the pi3k-hypoxia inducible factor 1a (HIF1A) axis, thus promoting macrophage transformation

Enhance the proliferation, differentiation and migration of tumor cells

STAT3 signaling pathway

Activation of JAK3/STAT3 pathway and secretion of IL-6 and IL-10 induce TAMs to M2 polarization

IL-6 secreted by TAMs activates the JAK2/STAT3 pathway, which stimulates tumor cell invasion and metastasis

Enhancement of tumor proliferation, invasion and metastasis

NF-kB signaling pathway

Decreased phosphorylation of RELA protein stimulates TAMs to M2 polarization

Cytokines secreted by M2 enhance TNF and iNOS expression in tumor cells, resulting in activation of the NF-kB pathway

Inhibition of apoptosis of tumor cells and promotion of tumor angiogenesis and metastasis

Exosome signaling

Exosomes secreted by TAMs promote tumor neoangiogenesis and tumor cell invasiveness

Tumor cell-derived exosomes promote tumor progression by activating TAMs

Mediates communication between tumor cells and TAMs to create conditions for tumor cell survival and development