Fig. 5

Empagliflozin ameliorated kidney metabolism. A Venn plot showing 94 Empa-altered metabolites in 264 kidney DEMs (|fold change|> 1.5, and p < 0.05). Renal damage-related metabolites were highlighted in the plot. B Pie charts showing the Chi-squared test (or Fisher exact test) of the percentage changes in the category of metabolites for the 264 DEMs in db/db mice and the 94 Empa-altered metabolites. C Heatmap depicting the expression levels of the 94 kidney metabolites altered by empagliflozin. Those 94 metabolites were classified into 6 categories according to the HMDB database. Among them, the metabolites belonging to ‘amnio acids and derivatives’ were further divided into five different types and calculated its percentage. Two known uremic toxins were highlighted. D KEGG pathway analysis based on the relative intensity levels of 94 Empa-altered metabolites in the kidney (hypergeometric test, p < 0.05; Impact > 0.1). E Activity state of enriched metabolic pathways for 94 Empa-altered metabolites in the kidney