Fig. 4

Current understanding and progress of cartilaginous organoids. a Overview schematic of the protocol of chondrogenic differentiation from iPSCs and MSCs; b The use of ill-defined and heterogeneous medium components for organoid cultures, including conditioned medium and animal-derived serum, which unpredictably alter organoid phenotype; c Various methods and scaffolds have been used for the construction of cartilaginous organoids. These scaffolds have a complex and ill-defined composition as well as overall poor tunability, which limits the studies of cartilaginous organoids. In summary, protocols used throughout cartilaginous organoid derivation and culture are nonstandardized, which is detrimental to the reproducibility of cartilaginous organoids