Table 3 Performance metrics for prediction models in the validation cohort

Internal validation cohort

 Accuracy

0.83 (0.81–0.86)

0.82 (0.79–0.84)

0.70 (0.67–0.73)

 Sensitivity

0.78 (0.72–0.84)

0.80 (0.74–0.85)

0.85 (0.79–0.90)

 Specificity

0.78 (0.75–0.81)

0.75 (0.72–0.79)

0.75 (0.72–0.78)

 PPV

0.51 (0.46–0.60)

0.49 (0.44–0.58)

0.50 (0.45–0.60)

 NPV

0.93 (0.90–0.94)

0.93 (0.90–0.94)

0.95 (0.92–0.95)

 F1 score

0.56 (0.52–0.60)

0.51 (0.47–0.56)

0.57 (0.52–0.61)

External validation cohort

 Accuracy

0.97 (0.96–0.98)

0.88 (0.86–0.89)

0.96 (0.94–0.96)

 Sensitivity

0.92 (0.87–0.95)

0.82 (0.76–0.87)

0.92 (0.87–0.95)

 Specificity

0.95 (0.94–0.96)

0.79 (0.77–0.81)

0.93 (0.92–0.95)

 PPV

0.71 (0.66–0.81)

0.34 (0.32–0.44)

0.65 (0.61–0.77)

 NPV

0.99 (0.98–0.99)

0.97 (0.96–0.97)

0.99 (0.98–0.99)

 F1 score

0.86 (0.82–0.90)

0.43 (0.37–0.46)

0.81 (0.76–0.91)