Fig. 3

Quantile‒quantile plot of the P values for all associations with four models. Four gene-based tests with a variety of models, including CMC, Fp, SkatO, and Zeggini models implemented in the toolkit RVTESTS (v20171009): variable-threshold burden tests with MAF cut-offs of ≤ 5%. A All variants (truncating variants + nontruncating variants) Q–Q plot for DCM cases vs. the reference group. B Truncating variant Q–Q plot for DCM cases vs. the reference group. C Nontruncating variant Q–Q plot for DCM cases vs. the reference group. DCM, dilated cardiomyopathy; MAF, minor allele frequency; Q–Q plot, quantile‒quantile plot