Table 2 Oncogenic potential of bacterial toxin
Bacterium | Toxin | Oncogenic activity |
|---|---|---|
Helicobacter pylori | Cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA) | Binding and activating the SHP-2 tyrosine phosphatase [224, 225] Disrupting the polarity of epithelial cells [103, 226] Increasing cell survival by cyclin D1 induction [227] Cell scattering by binding to Grb2 [228] Stimulating MMP10 expression [229] Inhibiting apoptosis by downregulating Siva1 protein [230] Enhancing cell proliferation by upregulating reg3 [231] |
Helicobacter pylori | Vacuolating toxin (VacA) | Vacuolation of gastric epithelial cells [232, 233] Disrupting the integrity of epithelial cells leading to carcinogen penetration [234] Inhibiting acid secretion from gastric parietal cells that proper the stomach microenvironment for the colonization of other bacterial species [235, 236] Interfering with protective immunity by suppressing the function of immune cells [237, 238] |
Pasteurella multocida | Pasteurella multocida toxin (PMT) | Eliciting mitogenic effect through Gq-signaling pathways [243, 244] Preventing apoptosis by inducing pim1 and Akt pathway and modulating the expression of Bcl2 family [245] Promoting the activation of STAT transcription factor and other signaling pathways involved in carcinogenesis [246] |
Escherichia coli | Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1) | Impacting several cellular processes (e.g., inflammation, survival, cell adhesion, and motility) by modifying Rho GTPases activity and actin cytoskeleton arrangement [247,248,249] Activating the RhoC in bladder cancer cells leading to HIF-1α expression, VEGF secretion, and promoting angiogenesis [250] Promoting the migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells [251] Inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition[252] |
Escherichia coli | Colibactin | Inducing cell proliferation [253, 254] Diminishing tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (CD3+ T population) [255] |
Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis | Bacteroides fragilis enterotoxin (BFT) | Enhnaced cleavages the E-cadherin that leads to disruption of intercellular junction, release and nuclear translocation of β-catenin, c-myc upregulation, and cell proliferation [256, 257] Increasing mucosal permeability [258] Inducing oncogenic inflammation by activating NF-κB [259,260,261] |