Beneficial effects of the olive oil phenolic components oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol: focus on protection against cardiovascular and metabolic diseases

Table 2 Effects and mechanisms involved in the cardiovascular protection of oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol

Protection	Effect	Mechanism	References
Vascular disease	antioxidant	↓ LDL oxidation	[24],[49],[50]
		↓ Lipid peroxidation	[51]
	↓ endothelial activation	↓ VCAM-1	[53]
	↓ monocyte adhesion
	↓ platelet aggregation	n.d.	[54]
		↓COX-2 activity	[55]
		↓thromboxane A2
		↑NO
	↓ VSME proliferation	↓ERK 1/2 phosphorylation	[56]
Heart disease	↓ coronary occlusion (*)	↓ CK activity	[57]
		↓ GSSG
	↓ cardiotoxicity (**)	↑AMPK phosphorylation	[58],[59]
		↓iNOS expression
		↑ METC activity
	ischemia	hypolipidemia	[61]
		↓SOD activity
	myocardial infarction	↑ Akt phosphorylation	[62]
		↑ eNOS phosphorylation
		↑ FOXO3a phosphorylation

(*) myocardial injury induced by ischemia; (**) DXR-induced toxicity; n.d.: not determined.
Abbreviations: AMPK 5’-AMP-activated protein kinase; CK Creatine kinase; COX cyclooxygenase; DXR doxorubicin; eNOS endothelial nitric oxide synthase; ERK extracellular regulated kinase; GSSG Oxidize glutathione; iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase; LDL low-density lipoproteins; MMP matrix metalloproteinases; METC mitochondrial electron transport chain; NO nitric oxide; PDE phosphodiesterase; SOD superoxide dismutase; VCAM vascular adhesion molecule; VSME vascular smooth muscle cells.

ISSN: 1479-5876