Table 1 Clinical manifestation summary of pulmonary fibrosis induced by viruses

Human T-cell leukemia virus

ATL, leukemic cell infiltration, pulmonary fibrosis

CT showed ground glass opacities, bronchiectasis, centrilobular nodules, septal thickening, honeycombing and crazy-paving, suggesting the presence of pulmonary fibrosis

No mention

Assessment:[4]; reversibility: None

Human immunodeficiency virus

Interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis

HRCT demonstrated areas of ground glass opacification, consolidation and honeycombing, with interstitial infiltrate as the histopathologic feature

No mention

Assessment:[10]; reversibility: None

Cytomegalovirus

Interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis

HRCT demonstrated bilateral mixed areas of ground-glass opacity, poorly-defined centrilobular small nodules, and consolidation

No mention

Assessment:[22]; reversibility: None

Epstein–Barr virus

Unspecific interstitial lung disease, pulmonary fibrosis

The open-lung biopsy showed uncharacteristic focal interstitial peribronchial infiltration in the left lower lobe, with histiocytes and lymphocytes as well as interstitial fibrosis and increased collagen tissue

Reversible: After 26 months, chest X-ray showed only slight interstitial markings

Assessment:[29]; reversibility: [29]

Influenza virus

ARDS, DAD bronchoalveolar pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis

Histologic features included bronchoalveolar pneumonia, interstitial septal thickening, type II pneumonocyte hyperplasia, fibrosis and squamous metaplasia. HRCT demonstrated ground glass opacity and consolidation

Reversible: The one month follow-up CT scans showed that the fibrosis resolved

Assessment:[36, 37]; reversibility: [37]

Avian influenza virus

ARDS, lymphopenia, pulmonary fibrosis

CT findings in H5N1 and H7N9 patients were ground-glass opacities and lobar consolidation

Reversible: The 12th month follow-up CT of patient showed only minimal residual fibrous lines

Assessment:[44, 46]; reversibility: [44]

MERS-CoV

ARDS, multi-lobar airspace disease, pulmonary fibrosis

CT showed multi-lobar airspace disease, ground-glass opacities and pleural effusions

No mention

Assessment:[57]; reversibility: none

SARS-CoV

ARDS, DAD, pulmonary fibrosis

The histopathological findings were extensive edema, hyaline membrane formation, alveolar collapse, and alveolar epithelial desquamation. CT showed ground-glass opacities and consolidation

Reversible: HRCT scan showed improvement of pulmonary fibrosis in one month

Assessment:[67, 68, 71]; reversibility: [69, 72]

SARS-CoV-2

ARDS, DAD, pulmonary fibrosis

Histopathological examination of the lung biopsy tissues revealed bilateral acute changes with DAD, reactive type II pneumocyte and macrophage hyperplasia, patchy inflammatory cellular infiltration and loose interstitial fibrosis

Reversible: Thin-section chest CT showed that pulmonary fibrosis developed in COVID-19 patients could reverse in about a third of the patients 120 days after the onset

Assessment:[88]; reversibility: [86]