Fig. 1

Bacterial community structure in HC and kidney stone disease (KSD) patients with normotension, prehypertension and hypertension (KSD-NTN, KSD-pHTN and KSD-HTN, respectively). a Bacterial richness and diversity across groups. Comparison of urinary microbiome alpha richness and diversity (Chao1, Observed species, Shannon index and Simpson’s index) between HC and KSD-NTN, between HC and KSD-pHTN, between HC and KSD-HTN, between KSD-NTN and KSD-pHTN, between KSD-NTN and KSD-HTN and between KSD-pHTN and KSD-HTN, using Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Horizontal bar represents mean and error bar represents ± SD. Bacterial richness and diversity were significantly greater in the HC than those in the three KSD groups (p < 0.05), and were slightly greater in the KSD-HTN group than those in the other two KSD groups (p > 0.05). b Principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) revealed the clustering of bacterial taxa in the three groups based on Bray–Curtis distance, with each point corresponding to a subject and colored according to the sample type. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance showed that the separation of bacterial communities in the four groups was significant (p = 0.001); the separation was also significant in HC vs KSD-NTN (p = 0.002), HC vs KSD-pHTN (p = 0.002), HC vs KSD-HTN (p = 0.002), KSD-NTN vs KSD-pHTN (p = 0.024) and KSD-NTN vs KSD-HTN (p = 0.024), but not in KSD-pHTN vs KSD-HTN (p = 0.111). c Venn diagram showing a dissimilar number of operational taxonomic units shared by HC and KSD-NTN, by HC and KSD-pHTN, by HC and KSD-HTN, by KSD-NTN and KSD-pHTN, by KSD-NTN and KSD-HTN and by KSD-pHTN and KSD-HTN. KSD kidney stone disease, HC healthy controls, HTN hypertension, NTN normotension, pHTN pre-hypertension