Table 1 Therapeutic approaches targeted on ASM

Contraction and relaxation

Anticholinergics

Inhibit the M2 and M3 subtypes of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

[59]

β₂-adrenoceptor agonists

Stimulation of adenylyl cyclase and subsequent activation of the cAMP-dependent signaling

[60]

Glucocorticoids

Reduce ASM contraction induced by histamine, bradykinin and acetylcholine

[61]

Proliferation and migration

K_Ca1.1 channels inhibitor

Suppressed phenotype shift to proliferation

[44]

β₂-adrenoceptor agonists

Blocked chemoattractants induced ASM migration

[62]

Leukotriene receptor antagonists

Leukotriene B4 markedly induced proliferation of human ASM cells

[63]

Antioxidant, glucocorticoids, ASK1 inhibitor

Inhibited TGF-β-induced ASM cell proliferation

[27, 64, 65]

Leptin

Stimulating ASM to secrete prostaglandin E2

[56]

Secretion

Antioxidant

Inhibited CXCL8 release from ASM

[27]

Reduced intracellular reactive oxygen production in ASM

[55]

Vitamin D

Inhibits secretion of RANTES

[66]