Table 2 List of recent studies investigating nanoparticle-mediated delivery of tumor antigen(s) either alone or in combination with adjuvant(s)/DC-targeting moieties for cancer therapeutic vaccination

Liposome

Hsp70 peptide complex

Breast cancer mouse model

Enhanced immune response

[165]

Liposome

MUC1 peptide, TLR4 ligand

Phase I–II–III studies

Phase I studies: vaccine was well tolerated; phase II study in NSCLC: survival improvement; Phase III study in NSCLC: only improvement observed was in concurrent chemoradiotherapy with a 10.2 month improvement in median survival

[96, 97, 101, 103]

Liposome

HLA-B7 and β2-microglobulin DNA

Phase II-III studies

Phase II study in metastatic melanoma had a positive outcome, but phase III study failed and product is currently discontinued

[102, 104]

Liposome

NY-ESO-1, MAGE-A3, tyrosinase and TPTE RNA

Phase I study

Positive outcome in all 3 patients tested. Recruitment of more patients is currently undergoing

[98]

Liposome

Mix of different peptides

Phase I study

Phase I trial positive outcome, with induced de novo and specific T cell response

[99, 100]

Liposome

SOCS1, A20 siRNA

Mouse lymphoma model

Drastic enhancement in cytokine production resulting in significant tumor suppression

[166]

Liposome

E7 HPV

TC-1 lung mouse model

Induced specific CD8⁺T cell response and T_reg inhibition

[167]

Liposome

OVA, TLR3/9 ligands

C57BL/6 mouse model

Increased CD8⁺ T cell response

[123]

γ-PGA/Polylysine

Empty or ovalbumin

C57BL/6 mouse model

Comparative study: PGA has intrinsic immunogenic properties and induced a stronger immune response than polylysine when both loaded with ovalbumin

[160]

γ-PGA

Ovalbumin

C57BL/6 mouse model

γ-PGA immunogenic properties are TLR4 signalling-dependent

[168]

Cationic polymers (PE/C32)

CD40 ligand DNA, CpG + poly(I:C)

B16-F10 melanoma mouse model

Comparative study: C32 polimer was superior to PE. TLR ligands had a synergistic effect in triggering immune response

[124]

PLGA

WTL

In vitro

Co-culture of patient TILs with patient DCs pulsed with autologous WTL-NPs resulted in higher IFN-γ and lower IL-10 production compared to soluble WTL

[110, 111]

PLGA

WTL, CpG, polyI:C

TRAMP mouse model

Induced CTL response and tumor shrinkage

[112]

PLGA

WTL

In vitro

Increased T cell proliferation

[113]

PLGA

Ovalbumin TLR3/7 ligands; CD40, CD11c, or DEC-205 ab

C57BL/6 mouse model

NP coating with targeting molecules (CD40, CD11c or DEC-205 antibodies) induced a stronger immune response

[106]

PLGA

Ovalbumin, mannose

C57BL/6 mouse model

Decoration of ovalbumin-NPs with mannose moieties increased the efficiency of ovalbumin-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses

[107]

PLGA

TRP2_180–188; TLR-4 ligand

B16-F10 melanoma mouse model

Immune stimulation in the tumor microenvironment, induction of antigen-specific CD8⁺ response

[108]

PLGA

Hgp100_25–33 TRP2_180–188

C57BL/6 mouse model

Increased antigen-specific T cell response

[109]

Cholesteryl pullulan

HER2 fragment; NY-ESO-1 protein

Phase I studies

Vaccine was well tolerated and induced antigen-specific immune responses

[114,115,116]

Chitosan

Ovalbumin, alginate

In vitro

Sugar-coated NP induced higher IFN-γ production in co-culture assays

[169]

Chitosan

WTL, mannose

B16 melanoma mouse model

Increased tumor growth inhibition

[117]

BSA/pyridine

Ovalbumin

In vitro

This type of nanogel had intrinsic adjuvant properties

[170]

Nanogel

Ovalbumin, galactose

B16-OVA mouse model

(pH-sensitive system) cytosolic antigen release; ROS production and increased MHC-I antigen presentation

[133]