Fig. 2

Putative mechanisms of action of beta-blockers in preventing tumor progression. Catecholamines are elevated under chronic stress and bind to beta-adrenoreceptors, resulting in activation of cAMP-PKA pathway and FAK, which accelerates tumor angiogenesis and invasion, and prevents cancer cells from apoptosis respectively. Beta-blockers blocks beta-adrenoreceptors, so that they are believed to suppress tumor growth and invasion. cAMP cyclic AMP, FAK protein kinase A, FAK focal adhesion kinase