Table 1 Parental tobacco smoking and offspring health outcomes

During pregnancy

Maternal smoking

Preterm birth^b

Fetal growth restriction^b

Low birth weight^b

Altered brain structure and function in newborns^b

Lower fetal heart rate variability^b

Reduced alveolarization^b

Increased risk of overweight and obesity^a,b

Higher blood pressure^a,b

Increased risk of wheezing, asthma, airway hyperresponsiveness, impaired lung function, bronchitis^b

Paternal/environmental smoking

Low birth weight^b

Further studies are needed

During lactation

Maternal smoking

Increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)^b

Neurodevelopmental and behavioral disorders^b

Sleep disruption^b

Increased risk of overweight and obesity^a,b

Impaired glucose homeostasis^a

Increased risk of respiratory allergy (asthma and rhinitis)^a,b